Respect and defend human rights. What are the basic things to which humans are entitled just because they’re humans? This question forms the basis of an inquiry into human rights. Ethics has a lot to say about what those rights are, who has them, and why. Many 21st century debates about torture, genocide, women’s rights, free speech, and welfare all focus on human rights The book seeks to demystify dense philosophical ideas via tons of beautifully designed infographics. Yet, despite avoiding heavy jargon, it doesn’t shy away from raising the big questions about life, consciousness, religion, and more. Oh, it was, except for the gas. We sell only new tanks with our grills, and they come empty. You have to go to a gas station or mini-mart to get gas for it. That’s why it won’t light. You got an empty tank. The second clarification pertains to the scope or completeness of a functionalist theory. Functionalism claims that the nature of mental states is determined by what they do, by how they function. So a belief that it is sunny, for example, might be constituted in part by its relations to certain other beliefs (such as that the sun is a star), desires (such as the desire to be on a beach), inputs (such as seeing the sun), and outputs (such as putting on sunglasses.) Now consider the other beliefs and desires (in the above example) that partially constitute the nature of the belief that it is sunny. In the strongest versions of functionalism, those beliefs and desires are themselves functional states, defined by their relations to inputs, outputs, and other mental states that are in turn functionally constituted; and so on. In this case, every mental state is completely or purely constituted by its relations to other things, without remainder. Nothing can exist as a mental state on its own, only in relation to the others. In contrast, weaker versions of functionalism could allow some mental states to be basic and non-functional For example, if functionalism applies to all mental states, one could hope to explain intentional states functionally while allowing for conscious mental states to be basic. Then the belief that it is sunny might be constituted, in part, by its relations to certain sensations of warmth or yellowness, but those sensations might not be functional states. Generally speaking, philosophers who do not specify otherwise are assuming that functionalism should be the strong or pure variety. Impure or weak versions of functionalism—what Georges Rey calls “anchored” versions—do not succeed in explaining the mental in terms of purely non-mental ingredients. So whatever other value they might have, they fall short as metaphysical theories of the nature of mental states. Some would deny that weak theories should count as versions of functionalism at all. 8. Conclusion The enterprise of philosophy itself, philosophy as a genuine human activity, can and should be great. Not to mention the fact that philosophers can be our friends. On this topic, I should perhaps quote the great poet John Milton, who wrote:

Philosophers have tried to distinguish carefully between mere opinions, or beliefs, and trustworthy knowledge. Most have said that knowledge is something like properly justified, true belief. In Philosophy For Dummies, 2nd Edition Dr. Tom Morris delivers a refreshing and engaging exploration of the fundamentals of philosophy and shows you that philosophy can be fascinating and fun at the same time. You’ll be introduced to topics like the meaning of life, religious belief, and ways to live in the most satisfying ways. You’ll also learn about the insights of some of history’s greatest philosophers. I hope in this book to begin to inspire you as I have been inspired by the books of others to look into these matters for yourself and fight to attain a bit of your own wisdom for life. Likewise, I’ll be your guide, as I use many guides myself, to make our way forward together. The Extreme Power of Belief Some philosophers known as skeptics question whether there is really any knowledge at all or whether we all might just be trapped in a bubble of our own beliefs, unable to access any objective reality beyond the bubble. Skeptics challenge us to explain how we can know life isn’t all a dream, or a mass hallucination, or a matrix of simulated deceptions.

If your actions are all forced on you by conditions beyond your control, you are then just a puppet and not a free agent of any kind. But this is precisely the suggestion that’s been made against the common belief in freedom, and there are versions of this challenge that come from such different directions as theology, logic, and science.

The unexamined life, on the other hand, isn’t one of deep personal understanding. It’s not a life of self-directed positive change. Richardson, R. 1982. How not to reduce a functional psychology. Philosophy of Science, 49, 1: 125-137. The logical structure of the zombie argument is just the same as with the other twin and doppelgänger arguments, like the Super-Spartans discussed above: Following Aristotle, many philosophers are now suggesting that ethics isn’t just about rules or commandments or duties, but it’s rather about habits of living that promote happiness and flourishing.

Searle’s Chinese Room objection focuses on contentful mental states like belief and understanding, what are generally called intentional states. But some philosophers conclude that functionalism is a good theory of intentional states but that it nevertheless fails because it cannot explain other sorts of mental states—in particular, they say that it cannot explain sensations and other conscious mental states. Overall, I think the A Very Short Introduction series has a little bit of something for everyone. In addition, each book is written by an established expert in his / her respective field, so you’re in good hands. Chalmers, D. 1995. Facing up to the problem of consciousness. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 2, 3: 200-219. I have tried, too, in my time to be a philosopher but, I don’t know how, cheerfulness was always breaking through.